FoREST ECOSYSTEM

My Team Members

Fadzly Nadzier

Eddie Andrias(Leader)

Joel See

Alden Maiyor

Forest

A forest is an area with a high density of trees. There are many definitions of a forest, based on various criterias.

Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity.Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the "biome" in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.

PTERIDOPHYTE

Joel See
Alden Maiyor
Fadzly Nadzier

PTERIDOPHYTE ARE ALSO KNOWN AS FERNS

These plants are generally sporophyte-oriented; that is, the normal plant is the diploid sporophyte, with the only haploid structure being the gametophyte (prothallium) in season. This basic pattern is like that found in the seed plants but with an important exception. Unlike the seed plants, the pteridophytes have a gametophyte stage that is free-living. As a result, pteridophyte sexuality is more complicated than that of the seed plants. There are several basic categories of sexuality in pteridophytes. The terms distinguish between types of gametophyte sexuality:
Dioicous pteridophytes produce only antheridia (male organs) or archegonia (female organ) on a single gametophyte body.
Monoicous pteridophytes produce both antheridia and archegonia on the same gametophyte body.
Protandrous pteridophytes produce the male antheridia first, and then their female archegonia.
Protogynous pteridophytes produce the archegonia first, followed by the antheridia.
Notice that these terms are not the same as monoecious and dioecious, which refer to whether or not a sporophyte plant bears one or both kinds of gametophyte. Those terms apply only to seed plants.These plants are generally sporophyte-oriented; that is, the normal plant is the diploid sporophyte, with the only haploid structure being the gametophyte (prothallium) in season. This basic pattern is like that found in the seed plants but with an important exception. Unlike the seed plants, the pteridophytes have a gametophyte stage that is free-living. As a result, pteridophyte sexuality is more complicated than that of the seed plants. There are several basic categories of sexuality in pteridophytes. The terms distinguish between types of gametophyte sexuality:
Dioicous pteridophytes produce only antheridia (male organs) or archegonia (female organ) on a single gametophyte body.
Monoicous pteridophytes produce both antheridia and archegonia on the same gametophyte body.
Protandrous pteridophytes produce the male antheridia first, and then their female archegonia.
Protogynous pteridophytes produce the archegonia first, followed by the antheridia.
Notice that these terms are not the same as monoecious and dioecious, which refer to whether or not a sporophyte plant bears one or both kinds of gametophyte. Those terms apply only to seed plants.Ferns first appear in the fossil record in the early-Carboniferous period. By the Triassic, the first evidence of ferns related to several modern families appeared. The "great fern radiation" occurred in the late-Cretaceous, when many modern families of ferns first appeared.
Ferns have traditionally been grouped in the Class Filices, but modern classifications assign them their own division in the plant kingdom, called Pteridophyta.
Traditionally, three discrete groups of plants have been considered ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns — families Ophioglossaceae (adders-tongues, moonworts, and grape-ferns) and Marattiaceae — and the leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with a large, fleshy rhizome, and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the main group of ferns, the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of plants were considered "fern allies": the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in the Lycopodiophyta, the whisk ferns in Psilotaceae, and the horsetails in the Equisetaceae. More recent genetic studies have shown that the Lycopodiophyta are only distantly related to any other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade, while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as much "true" ferns as are the Ophioglossoids and Marattiaceae. In fact, the whisk ferns and Ophioglossoids are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade. Molecular data — which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny — have been supplemented by recent morphological observations supporting the inclusion of Equisetaceae within the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm, and peculiarities of their roots (Smith et al 2006, and references therein).
One possible means of treating this situation is to consider only the leptosporangiate ferns as "true" ferns, while considering the other three groups as "fern allies". In practice, numerous classification schemes have been proposed for ferns and fern allies, and there has been little consensus among them. A new classification by Smith et al. (2006) is based on recent molecular systematic studies, in addition to morphological data. This classification divides ferns into four classes:
Psilotopsida
Equisetopsida
Marattiopsida
Polypodiopsida
The last group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns.
The complete classification scheme proposed by Smith et al. (2006; alternative names in brackets):
Class Psilotopsida
Order Ophioglossales
Family Ophioglossaceae (incl. Botrychiaceae, Helminthostachyaceae)
Order Psilotales
Family Psilotaceae (incl. Tmesipteridaceae)
Class Equisetopsida [=Sphenopsida]
Order Equisetales
Family Equisetaceae
Class Marattiopsida
Order Marattiales
Family Marattiaceae (incl. Angiopteridaceae, Christenseniaceae, Danaeaceae, Kaulfussiaceae)
Class Pteridopsida [=Filicopsida, Polypodiopsida]
Order Osmundales
Family Osmundaceae
Order Hymenophyllales
Family Hymenophyllaceae (incl. Trichomanaceae)
Order Gleicheniales
Family Gleicheniaceae (incl. Dicranopteridaceae, Stromatopteridaceae)
Family Dipteridaceae (incl. Cheiropleuriaceae)
Family Matoniaceae
Order Schizaeales
Family Lygodiaceae
Family Anemiaceae (incl. Mohriaceae)
Family Schizaeaceae
Order Salviniales
Family Marsileaceae (incl. Pilulariaceae)
Family Salviniaceae (incl. Azollaceae)
Order Cyatheales
Family Thyrsopteridaceae
Family Loxomataceae
Family Culcitaceae
Family Plagiogyriaceae
Family Cibotiaceae
Family Cyatheaceae (incl. Alsophilaceae, Hymenophyllopsidaceae)
Family Dicksoniaceae (incl. Lophosoriaceae)
Family Metaxyaceae
Order Polypodiales
Family Lindsaeaceae (incl. Cystodiaceae, Lonchitidaceae)
Family Saccolomataceae
Family Dennstaedtiaceae (incl. Hypolepidaceae, Monachosoraceae, Pteridiaceae)
Family Pteridaceae (incl. Acrostichaceae, Actiniopteridaceae, Adiantaceae, Anopteraceae, Antrophyaceae, Ceratopteridaceae, Cheilanthaceae, Cryptogrammaceae, Hemionitidaceae, Negripteridaceae, Parkeriaceae, Platyzomataceae, Sinopteridaceae, Taenitidaceae, Vittariaceae)
Family Aspleniaceae
Family Thelypteridaceae
Family Woodsiaceae (incl. Athyriaceae, Cystopteridaceae)
Family Blechnaceae (incl. Stenochlaenaceae)
Family Onocleaceae
Family Dryopteridaceae (incl. Aspidiaceae, Bolbitidaceae, Elaphoglossaceae, Hypodematiaceae, Peranemataceae)
Family Oleandraceae
Family Davalliaceae
Family Polypodiaceae (incl. Drynariaceae, Grammitidaceae, Gymnogrammitidaceae, Loxogrammaceae, Platyceriaceae, Pleurisoriopsidaceae)